Weight Loss Drugs – References

Mark Cucuzzella

Current: Professor, West Virginia University School of Medicine; Diplomate, American Board of Obesity Medicine

Past: Department of Veterans Affairs, US Air Force, University of Colorado School of Medicine, University of Virginia

Dr. Cucuzzella is a Professor at West Virginia University and a 29-year retired U.S. Air Force primary care physician and

Learn more
References

Weight Loss Drugs – References

  1. Liu L, Chen J, Wang L, Chen C, Chen L. Association between different GLP-1 receptor agonists and gastrointestinal adverse reactions: A real-world disproportionality study based on FDA adverse event reporting system database. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022 Dec 7;13:1043789. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1043789. PMID: 36568085; PMCID: PMC9770009.
  2. Aldhaleei WA, Abegaz TM, Bhagavathula AS. Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists Associated Gastrointestinal Adverse Events: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the National Institutes of Health All of Us Cohort. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2024 Feb 2;17(2):199. doi: 10.3390/ph17020199. PMID: 38399414; PMCID: PMC10891568.
  3. Neeland IJ, Linge J, Birkenfeld AL. Changes in lean body mass with glucagon-like peptide-1-based therapies and mitigation strategies. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2024 Sep;26 Suppl 4:16-27. doi: 10.1111/dom.15728. Epub 2024 Jun 27. PMID: 38937282.
  4. Guo H, Guo Q, Li Z, Wang Z. Association between different GLP-1 receptor agonists and acute pancreatitis: case series and real-world pharmacovigilance analysis. Front Pharmacol. 2024 Nov 13;15:1461398. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1461398. PMID: 39605914; PMCID: PMC11600108.
  5. Alenzi KA, Alsuhaibani D, Batarfi B, Alshammari TM. Pancreatitis with use of new diabetic medications: a real-world data study using the post-marketing FDA adverse event reporting system (FAERS) database. Front Pharmacol. 2024 May 27;15:1364110. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1364110. PMID: 38860168; PMCID: PMC11163090.
  6. Monami M, Nreu B, Scatena A, Cresci B, Andreozzi F, Sesti G, Mannucci E. Safety issues with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer and cholelithiasis): Data from randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017 Sep;19(9):1233-1241. doi: 10.1111/dom.12926. Epub 2017 Jun 20. PMID: 28244632.
  7. Scheen AJ. Pharmacokinetics and clinical use of incretin-based therapies in patients with chronic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015 Jan;54(1):1-21. doi: 10.1007/s40262-014-0198-2. PMID: 25331711.
  8. Kaakeh Y, Kanjee S, Boone K, Sutton J. Liraglutide-induced acute kidney injury. Pharmacotherapy. 2012 Jan;32(1):e7-11. doi: 10.1002/PHAR.1014. PMID: 22392833.
  9. Bezin, J, Gouverneur, A, Penichon, M, et al. GLP-1 receptor agonists and the risk of thyroid Cancer. Diabetes Care. (2023) 46:384–90. doi: 10.2337/DC22-1148
  10. Das SR, Everett BM, Birtcher KK, Brown JM, Januzzi JL Jr, Kalyani RR, Kosiborod M, Magwire M, Morris PB, Neumiller JJ, Sperling LS. 2020 Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Novel Therapies for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020 Sep 1;76(9):1117-1145. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.037. Epub 2020 Aug 5. PMID: 32771263; PMCID: PMC7545583.
  11. Prime Therapeutics. (2024). Real-world analysis of GLP-1a drugs for weight loss finds low adherence and increased cost in first year.. (https://www.primetherapeutics.com/news/real-world-analysis-of-glp-1a-drugs-for-weight-loss-finds-low-adherence-and-increased-cost-in-first-year/). 
  12. Xie Y, Choi T, Al-Aly Z. Mapping the effectiveness and risks of GLP-1 receptor agonists. Nature Medicine. Jan. 20, 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03412-w
  13. Daniel J. Drucker ,The benefits of GLP-1 drugs beyond obesity. Science385,258-260(2024).DOI:10.1126/science.adn4128
  14. Ussher, J.R., Drucker, D.J. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists: cardiovascular benefits and mechanisms of action. Nat Rev Cardiol 20, 463–474 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-023-00849-3 
  15. Kalyani RR. Glucose-Lowering Drugs to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021 Apr 1;384(13):1248-1260. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp2000280. PMID: 33789013.
  16. Uneda, K., Kawai, Y., Yamada, T. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis for prevention of cardiovascular complications using GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT-2 inhibitors in obese diabetic patients. Sci Rep 11, 10166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89620-7 
  17. Alexander JT, Staab EM, Wan W, Franco M, Knitter A, Skandari MR, Bolen S, Maruthur NM, Huang ES, Philipson LH, Winn AN, Thomas CC, Zeytinoglu M, Press VG, Tung EL, Gunter K, Bindon B, Jumani S, Laiteerapong N. The Longer-Term Benefits and Harms of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2022 Feb;37(2):415-438. doi: 10.1007/s11606-021-07105-9. Epub 2021 Sep 10. PMID: 34508290; PMCID: PMC8810987.
  18. Christensen RM, Juhl CR, Torekov SS. Benefit-Risk Assessment of Obesity Drugs: Focus on Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists. Drug Saf. 2019 Aug;42(8):957-971. doi: 10.1007/s40264-019-00812-7. Erratum in: Drug Saf. 2019 Jul;42(7):919. doi: 10.1007/s40264-019-00830-5. PMID: 30972641.
  19. De Barra C, Khalil M, Mat A, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 therapy in people with obesity restores natural killer cell metabolism and effector function. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2023; 31(7): 1787-1797. doi:10.1002/oby.23772
  20. Iorga RA, Bacalbasa N, Carsote M, Bratu OG, Stanescu AMA, Bungau S, Pantis C, Diaconu CC. Metabolic and cardiovascular benefits of GLP-1 agonists, besides the hypoglycemic effect (Review). Exp Ther Med. 2020 Sep;20(3):2396-2400. doi: 10.3892/etm.2020.8714. Epub 2020 May 5. PMID: 32765722; PMCID: PMC7401476.
  21. McCoy, R.G., Herrin, J., Swarna, K.S. et al. Effectiveness of glucose-lowering medications on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes at moderate cardiovascular risk. Nat Cardiovasc Res 3, 431–440 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44161-024-00453-9
  22. Bergmann NC, Davies MJ, Lingvay I, Knop FK. Semaglutide for the treatment of overweight and obesity: A review. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2023 Jan;25(1):18-35. doi: 10.1111/dom.14863. Epub 2022 Oct 18. PMID: 36254579; PMCID: PMC10092086.
  23. Wharton S, Batterham RL, Bhatta M, et al. Two-year effect of semaglutide 2.4 mg on control of eating in adults with overweight/obesity: STEP 5. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2023; 31(3): 703-715. doi:10.1002/oby.23673
  24. Ruseva, A, Michalak, W, Zhao, Z, Fabricatore, A, Hartaigh, B, and Umashanker, D. Semaglutide 2.4 mg clinical outcomes in patients with obesity or overweight in a real-world setting: a 6-month retrospective study in the United States (SCOPE). Obes Sci Pract. (2024) 10:e737. doi: 10.1002/OSP4.737
  25. Nauck MA, Quast DR, Wefers J, Meier JJ. GLP-1 receptor agonists in the treatment of type 2 diabetes – state-of-the-art. Mol Metab. 2021 Apr;46:101102. doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2020.101102. Epub 2020 Oct 14. PMID: 33068776; PMCID: PMC8085572.
  26. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee; 9. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2025. Diabetes Care 1 January 2025; 48 (Supplement_1): S181–S206. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc25-S009 
  27. Marsico F, Paolillo S, Gargiulo P, Bruzzese D, Dell’Aversana S, Esposito I, Renga F, Esposito L, Marciano C, Dellegrottaglie S, Iesu I, Perrone Filardi P. Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on major cardiovascular events in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus with or without established cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J. 2020 Sep 14;41(35):3346-3358. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa082. PMID: 32077924.
  28. Madsbad S, Holst JJ. Cardiovascular effects of incretins: focus on glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Cardiovasc Res. 2023 May 2;119(4):886-904. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvac112. PMID: 35925683.
  29. Badve SV, Bilal A, Lee MMY, Sattar N, Gerstein HC, Ruff CT, McMurray JJV, Rossing P, Bakris G, Mahaffey KW, Mann JFE, Colhoun HM, Tuttle KR, Pratley RE, Perkovic V. Effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists on kidney and cardiovascular disease outcomes: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2025 Jan;13(1):15-28. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00271-7. Epub 2024 Nov 25. PMID: 39608381.
  30. Chen JY, Hsu TW, Liu JH, Pan HC, Lai CF, Yang SY, Wu VC. Kidney and Cardiovascular Outcomes Among Patients With CKD Receiving GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials. Am J Kidney Dis. 2025 Jan 23:S0272-6386(25)00042-3. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2024.11.013. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 39863261.
  31. Wang W, Wang QQ, Qi X, et al. Associations of semaglutide with first-time diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: Target trial emulation using nationwide real-world data in the US. Alzheimer’s Dement. 2024; 20: 8661–8672. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.14313 
  32. Kopp KO, Li Y, Glotfelty EJ, Tweedie D, Greig NH. Incretin-Based Multi-Agonist Peptides Are Neuroprotective and Anti-Inflammatory in Cellular Models of Neurodegeneration. Biomolecules. 2024 Jul 19;14(7):872. doi: 10.3390/biom14070872. PMID: 39062586; PMCID: PMC11275108.
  33. Hendershot CS, Bremmer MP, Paladino MB, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults With Alcohol Use Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online February 12, 2025. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.4789
  34. Bruns Vi N, Tressler EH, Vendruscolo LF, Leggio L, Farokhnia M. IUPHAR review – Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and substance use disorders: An emerging pharmacotherapeutic target. Pharmacol Res. 2024 Sep;207:107312. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107312. Epub 2024 Jul 18. PMID: 39032839; PMCID: PMC11467891.
  35. Farokhnia M, Tazare J, Pince CL, Bruns Vi N, Gray JC, Lo Re Iii V, Fiellin DA, Kranzler HR, Koob GF, Justice AC, Vendruscolo LF, Rentsch CT, Leggio L. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists but not dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors reduce alcohol intake. J Clin Invest. 2025 Mar 6:e188314. doi: 10.1172/JCI188314. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40048376.
  36. Patel Chavez C, Cusi K, Kadiyala S. The Emerging Role of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for the Management of NAFLD. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jan 1;107(1):29-38. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgab578. PMID: 34406410; PMCID: PMC8684453.
  37. Liao C, Liang X, Zhang X, Li Y. The effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists on visceral fat and liver ectopic fat in an adult population with or without diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2023 Aug 24;18(8):e0289616. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289616. PMID: 37616255; PMCID: PMC10449217.
  38. Meurot C, Martin C, Sudre L, Breton J, Bougault C, Rattenbach R, Bismuth K, Jacques C, Berenbaum F. Liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist, exerts analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-degradative actions in osteoarthritis. Sci Rep. 2022 Jan 28;12(1):1567. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-05323-7. PMID: 35091584; PMCID: PMC8799666.
  39. Ryan M, Megyeri S, Nuffer W, Trujillo JM. The potential role of GLP-1 receptor agonists in osteoarthritis. Pharmacotherapy. 2025 Mar;45(3):177-186. doi: 10.1002/phar.70005. Epub 2025 Feb 20. PMID: 39980227.
  40. Critical appraisal for low-carbohydrate diet in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Review and meta-analyses Ahn, Jaehee et al. Clinical Nutrition, Volume 38, Issue 5, 2023 – 2030
  41. Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, McGuckin BG, Brill C, Mohammed BS, Szapary PO, Rader DJ, Edman JS, Klein S. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. N Engl J Med. 2003 May 22;348(21):2082-90. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa022207. PMID: 12761365.
  42. McKenzie AL, Athinarayanan SJ, Van Tieghem MR, Volk BM, Roberts CGP, Adams RN, Volek JS, Phinney SD, Hallberg SJ. 5-Year effects of a novel continuous remote care model with carbohydrate-restricted nutrition therapy including nutritional ketosis in type 2 diabetes: An extension study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2024 Nov;217:111898. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2024.111898. Epub 2024 Oct 20. PMID: 39433217.
  43. Athinarayanan SJ, Adams RN, Hallberg SJ, McKenzie AL, Bhanpuri NH, Campbell WW, Volek JS, Phinney SD, McCarter JP. Long-Term Effects of a Novel Continuous Remote Care Intervention Including Nutritional Ketosis for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes: A 2-Year Non-randomized Clinical Trial. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019 Jun 5;10:348. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00348. PMID: 31231311; PMCID: PMC6561315.
  44. Goldenberg JZ, Day A, Brinkworth GD, Sato J, Yamada S, Jönsson T, Beardsley J, Johnson JA, Thabane L, Johnston BC. Efficacy and safety of low and very low carbohydrate diets for type 2 diabetes remission: systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished randomized trial data. BMJ. 2021 Jan 13;372:m4743. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m4743. PMID: 33441384; PMCID: PMC7804828.
  45. Critical appraisal for low-carbohydrate diet in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Review and meta-analyses Ahn, Jaehee et al. Clinical Nutrition, Volume 38, Issue 5, 2023 – 2030
  46. Childhood Obesity Vol. 9, No. 3 A Low-Glycemic-Load versus Low-Fat Diet in the Treatment of Fatty Liver in Obese Children, https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2013.0022 
  47. https://www.virtahealth.com/press/virta-healths-diabetes-reversal-treatment-drives-savings-of-more-than-10k-per-patient-over-two-years-new-analysis-shows 
  48. Buchanan L, Calkins M, Kalayjian T, Norwitz NG, Teicholz N, Unwin D, Soto-Mota A. TOWARD, a metabolic health intervention, demonstrates robust 1-year weight loss and cost-savings through deprescription. Front Nutr. 2025 Feb 14;12:1548609. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1548609. PMID: 40028226; PMCID: PMC11868080.
  49. Watso JC, Robinson AT, Singar SAB, Cuba JN, Koutnik AP. Advanced cardiovascular physiology in an individual with type 1 diabetes after 10-year ketogenic diet. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2024 Aug 1;327(2):C446-C461. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00694.2023. Epub 2024 Jun 24. PMID: 38912731; PMCID: PMC11427101.
  50. ANDREW P. KOUTNIK, THOMAS WOOD, KRISTI STOROSCHUK, BELINDA S. LENNERZ; 608-P: Carbohydrate Intake, Glycemic Control, and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Type 1 Diabetes—A Systematic Review and Meta-regression. Diabetes 14 June 2024; 73 (Supplement_1): 608–P. https://doi.org/10.2337/db24-608-P 
  51. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(1):e142246. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI142246.
  52. Front. Nutr. , 08 February 2023 Volume 10 – 2023 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1084021 
  53. Dorans KS, Bazzano LA, Qi L, et al. Effects of a Low-Carbohydrate Dietary Intervention on Hemoglobin A1c: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(10):e2238645. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.38645
  54. Devi N, Madaan P, Kandoth N, Bansal D, Sahu JK. Efficacy and Safety of Dietary Therapies for Childhood Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2023;177(3):258–266. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.5648
  55. Martinez, C.C., Pyzik, P.L. and Kossoff, E.H. (2007), Discontinuing the Ketogenic Diet in Seizure-Free Children: Recurrence and Risk Factors. Epilepsia, 48: 187-190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00911.x 
  56. Liyang Rong, Yating Peng, Qi Shen, Keying Chen, Bangjiang Fang, Weirong Li, Effects of ketogenic diet on cognitive function of patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis,The Journal of nutrition, health and aging,Volume 28, Issue 8,2024,100306, ISSN 1279-7707, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnha.2024.100306. 
  57. Fortier M, Castellano C-A, St-Pierre V, et al. A ketogenic drink improves cognition in mild cognitive impairment: Results of a 6-month RCT. Alzheimer’s Dement. 2021; 17: 543–552. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12206 
  58. Oehm S, Steinke K, Schmidt J, Arjune S, Todorova P, Heinrich Lindemann C, Wöstmann F, Meyer F, Siedek F, Weimbs T, Müller RU, Grundmann F. RESET-PKD: a pilot trial on short-term ketogenic interventions in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2023 Jun 30;38(7):1623-1635. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfac311. PMID: 36423335; PMCID: PMC10435930.
  59. https://www.help.senate.gov/dem/newsroom/press/news-chairman-sanders-releases-report-exposing-how-weight-loss-drugs-could-bankrupt-american-health-care 
  60. Emanuel EJ, Dellgren JL, McCoy MS, Persad G. Fair Allocation of GLP-1 and Dual GLP-1-GIP Receptor Agonists. N Engl J Med. 2024 May 30;390(20):1839-1842. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp2400978. Epub 2024 Apr 17. PMID: 38630999
  61. International coverage of GLP-1 receptor agonists: a review and ethical analysis of discordant approaches; Dellgren, Johan L et al. The Lancet, Volume 404, Issue 10455, 902 – 906
  62. Dellgren J, Emanuel E, Persad G. Ethical Approaches to Limiting Overall Costs for Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for Weight Management. Ann Intern Med. 2025 Jan;178(1):119-121. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-24-01317. Epub 2024 Nov 26. PMID: 39586102.

Related topics